In observance of National Human Trafficking Prevention Month, we examine cases in the New Haven County, County Court records that deal with illegal enslavement.
As Connecticut Explored observed, “Not all Black people were enslaved in Connecticut, even in the colonial period. If you study slavery, you must also study freedom.” While the Euro-descended colonists practiced slavery in Connecticut until 1848, it was not legal in all scenarios. The state banned the slave trade in 1774 and adopted the policy of gradual emancipation in 1784. As such, there was an ever-growing population of free Black communities in the state throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
However, this did not mean that freepersons never faced threats to their liberty and livelihoods. In addition to Phillis of New Haven, we have come across other cases of attempted enslavement and forced servitude in the court records. Although Indigenous enslavement was also practiced in New England—as evidenced by escapees like Sabina—the people involved in the cases below were noted in the court records (or presumed) as being of African descent.
When quoting from documents, we will use the actual spelling, including transcriptions of individual words as necessary. (For more information about colonial spelling practices, see The Standardization of American English at teachinghistory.org.) In certain circumstances, we will add missing letters to abbreviated words or substitute modern spelling in brackets to enhance reader comprehension.
Writ for Aaron Moree vs. Captain Eliakim Hall
In 1773, Aaron Moree of Guilford (also known as Pero Negro) sued Captain Eliakim Hall of Wallingford for failure to pay rightful wages for labor. Moree had previously lived with Hall in Wallingford and provided him with three years of husbandry work that he estimated was “reasonably worth” 30 pounds, which was the amount he requested in damages.
While the Court found in Moree’s favor, they awarded him only 5 pounds, plus the recovery of his court costs. Nevertheless, Hall appealed to the Superior Court, and Charles Chauncey of New Haven was bound on recognizance of 50 pounds on his behalf “if he make not his Plea good” (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 7, 1757-1773, p. 522).
Writ for Philip Negro vs. Moses Blakesley
In 1788, Philip of Cheshire (also identified as Philip Negro, Philip Negroe, and Philip Mollatto in the court records) sued Moses Blakesley of Cheshire for “caus[ing] him to work in confinement & servitude as his slave” after he entered the man’s service at age 10. Philip asserted that he “was born free Intituled to all the privileges of freemen” and requested damages of 500 pounds for the deprivation of the “advantages[,] privileges & enjoyments which his free birth entituled him to.”
In a highly satisfying turn of events, not only did the Court find Philip’s declaration sufficient, they also awarded him full damages and the recovery of his court costs. Unsurprisingly, Blakesley appealed to the Superior Court, and was bound on recognizance of 500 pounds “if he make not his Plea good” (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 9, 1783-1788, p. 487).
Writ and other documents for Philip Negro vs. Samuel Merriam
Unfortunately, this incident wasn’t Philip’s only struggle for liberty and the recognition of his status as a freeman. In 1789, he sued Samuel Merriam of Cheshire for confining him in servitude from February to April 1788, where he was “in every respect subject to him as tho[ugh] he had been Slave for life & the absolute property of the Def[endan]t.” In recompense for this ill treatment, Philip sought 60 pounds in damages. But after hearing testimony from both sides, the Court sided with Merriam’s claim that he had fulfilled “a full & ample discharge of all demands on account of s[ai]d services,” adjudged Philip’s plea insufficient, and awarded Merriam the recovery of his court costs. (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 10, 1789-1793, p. 49)
Philip did not elect to appeal to the Superior Court—the record book states that after the Court found in favor of Merriam, the “Verdict was accepted.” Given that plaintiffs and defendants alike often appealed verdicts ruled against them, one wonders whether Philip was disinclined or even discouraged from doing so. As Kelly A. Ryan noted, “The status of African Americans as free people did not change whites’ perception that they were inferior... [S]ociety continued to see African Americans as property and dependents even in places... which had ended slavery” (Everyday Crimes: Social Violence and Civil Rights in Early America, pp. 186-187, 189).
Writ for Ebenezer Townsend vs. Elnathan Ives, Stephen Perkins, and Jonathan Yale
In some cases, the plaintiff was an attempted enslaver rather than an individual fighting for freedom.
In 1782, Ebenezer Townsend of New Haven sued Elnathan Ives, Stephen Perkins, and Jonathan Yale of Wallingford in a plea of covenant broken. Townsend alleged that he paid Ives, Perkins, and Yale 31 pounds and 10 shillings for “a certain Negro Man named Dick to have & to hold said Negro Man as a Slave.” However, Townsend later found out that Dick “was not a Slave, but was a free Man,” and “thereby hath had no Benefit of the Service of said Negro man,” who “hath deserted & gone” from him.
Townsend requested 60 pounds in damages—nearly double the cost of what he paid for Dick. However, the Court deemed his declaration insufficient and awarded Ives, Perkins, and Yale the recovery of their court costs. Of course, Townsend appealed to the Superior Court, and Jonathan Ingersoll of New Haven was bound on recognizance of 40 pounds on his behalf “if he make not his plea good” (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 8, 1774-1783, p. 503).
Writ for Charles Hall vs. John Ives and Edmund Feilds
Writ for Charles Hall vs. Joel Moss
In 1789, Charles Hall of Wallingford sued John Ives and Edmund Feilds, also of Wallingford, for selling him “two thirds of a certain Negroe Woman Named Dinah... & also two thirds a negroe Girl daughter of s[ai]d Dinah named Betty & two thirds of all the younger children of s[aid] Dinah,” even though they “had no right to Sell them... nor were s[ai]d Dinah or her Children Slaves for Life.” Hall requested 100 pounds in damages. In addition, Hall sued Joel Moss of Wallingford for the same offense, but sought a lesser amount of 50 pounds.
In both cases, the defendants pled abatement of the charges, which the Court granted. Unsurprisingly, Hall appealed to the Superior Court, and was bound “jointly & severally” with Samuel Hotchkiss and Mark Leavenworth on recognizance “in due form, to prosecute this appeal to effect, & answer all damages &c.” (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 10, 1789-1793, p. 44).
Writ for Elnathan Ives vs. John Dickinson
In 1786, Elnathan Ives of Wallingford sued John Dickinson of Middletown for selling him “a certain Negro man named Dick” for 23 pounds. However, Dick was “a Freeman and not liable to be Sold,” so Ives requested 120 pounds in damages.
Unfortunately for Ives, the Court found his plea insufficient and awarded Dickinson the recovery of his court costs. Ives appealed to the Superior Court, and William Carter of New Haven was bound on recognizance of 40 pounds on his behalf “if he Make not his plea good” (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 9, 1783-1788, p. 249).
Writ for John Merriam vs. Thomas Yale
In 1788, John Merriam of Wallingford sued Thomas Yale of Derby for selling him in Cheshire “one certain Negro Man called Sharp as and for a Slave for Life.” Merriam paid 32 pounds for Sharp, but later discovered that Sharp “was not a Slave for life but was a free man and the Def[endan]t had no Right Title or Interest in or to said Negro nor had the Def[endan]t any Right to Sell said Negro.”
Merriam requested 100 pounds in damages. Interestingly, the Court awarded him the full amount—whereupon Yale appealed to the Superior Court. (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 9, 1783-1788, p. 414)
Writ for Titus Hotchkiss vs. Joel Moss and John Ives 3rd
In 1794, Titus Hotchkiss of Wallingford sued Joel Moss and John Ives, also of Wallingford, for selling him a “certain Negro Girl named Amy for the sum of twenty two pounds.” While Moss and Ives “affirmed that said Amy was a Slave for life, and that they had a good right to sell her as, and for a Slave for life,” Hotchkiss discovered that “she was a free person and the Def[endan]ts had no right to sell her.”
In contrast to several of the other cases involving enslavers, Hotchkiss sought a comparatively modest 35 pounds in damages. However, the Court found in favor of Moss and Ives, awarding them the recovery of their court costs. Hotchkiss appealed to the Superior Court, and Charles Hall of New Haven was bound on recognizance on his behalf. (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 11, 1794-1797, p. 12)
Writ for Simeon Newell vs. Samuel Osborn
In 1796, Simeon Newell, acting on behalf of the Treasurer of the State of Connecticut, sued Samuel Osborn of Woodbridge for selling an African-descended man named Cato out of state to Albert Jacob of New York, which was “contrary to a certain Statute Law of this State... entitled an Act to Prevent the Slave Trade.”
For violation of this law, Newell sought 354 dollars in damages. However, the Court found in favor of Osborn, and awarded him the recovery of his court costs. As in the majority of cases profiled here, Newell appealed to the Superior Court. (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 11, 1794-1797, p. 320)
Writ for James and Caroline Saunderson vs. Joseph Wheeler and Captain William Clark
In 1790, James and Caroline Saunderson of New London (formerly of New Haven) sued Joseph Wheeler and Captain William Clark of Derby for trespass. While their ancestry was not mentioned in the court records, we presume that the Saundersons were of African descent, due to the nature of the offense committed against them. Specifically, James alleged that Wheeler and Clark assaulted his wife, forcibly conveyed her onboard a vessel, transported her to the Island of Saint Martin in the West Indies, and “sold & deposed of her the said Caroline as & for a Slave for Life, contrary to her mind & will... for the full & whole term of Two years & Six Months.”
As Ryan observed, “Many whites failed to accept [B]lack freedom and equality, and they engaged in abusive conduct toward African Americans, disrupting their financial positions, families, and right to occupy public spaces” (Everyday Crimes, p. 187). As this case starkly demonstrates, attempted selling southward was one of the weapons whites used against freepersons.
In recompense for this egregious violation of liberty, the Saundersons demanded 1,000 pounds in damages. While the Court found in favor of the plaintiffs, it only granted them the trifling award of 7 pounds, 8 shillings, and 3 pence in damages, plus court costs. As the defendants did not appear in court, they did not appeal this verdict. (County Court Records, New Haven County, Vol. 10, 1789-1793, p. 287)
Given the abundance of appeals, we look forward to finding out more about what happened to Aaron Moree of Guilford, Philip of Cheshire, Dick of Wallingford, Dinah and Betty of Wallingford, Dick of Middletown, Sharp of Cheshire, Amy of Wallingford, and Cato of Woodbridge when we begin processing the Superior Court records.
As noted in a previous post, the records for these cases, as well as several of the cases previously profiled in this blog, are currently in the process of being digitized. They will eventually be available for public viewing at the Connecticut Digital Archive (CTDA).
The Connecticut State Library would like to thank the National Historical Publications and Records Commission (NHPRC) for their generous support of this project.
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